Use of Nasdat in Burgess’ a Clockwork Orange

Use of nasdat in Burgess’ A Clockwork Orange â€Å"And, my brothers, it was real satisfaction to me to waltz-left two three, right two three-and carve left cheeky and right cheeky, so that like two curtains of blood seemed to pour out at the same time, one on either side of his fat filthy oily snout in the winter starlight. † –Alex, A Clockwork Orange Anthony Burgess’ A Clockwork Orange is set in a futuristic city in a time, not too far off in the future. In this futuristic society, normal citizens have fallen into complacency and are oblivious to the growth of a violent youth culture.Alex, the narrator and protagonist of the story, is a teenage boy who speaks in a contrived slang called nadsat. Nasdat is a contrived language that incorporates elements of Russian and Cockney English. The use of language in the novel helps illustrate and set the scene as Alex leads a small gang of peers, friends and fellow criminals – Dim, Pete, and Georgie – through the streets, robbing, beating men, raping women and committing random acts of violence.Alex is the sole narrator of A Clockwork Orange. Every word on the page is his, and as readers, we experience his world through the scenes he describes and the experiences, suffering and pleasure he encounters. The function of nadsat in A Clockwork Orange, are many. Most immediately, the use of unusual language forces the reader to actively think about and use the language of the book. Because nasdat isn’t common-place, readers must pay attention to and force understanding of the words on the page.The act of comprehending and understanding the language as it is written prevents readers from making judgments about the characters. In this way, nadsat insulates us from many of the harsh and violent realities in the book, allowing us to develop a rapport with Alex and ultimately grow sympathy for the character. To better understand why the language in A Clockwork Orange draws the reader to empathize with the main character, it is important to understand how nasdat was developed and also how it works as a tool to draw the reader in.The most daunting task to most readers of this novel is the introduction of a foreign yet eerily common seeming language. A general understanding of the influence, pronunciation and meaning of many of the words in nasdat can ease the reader into a pleasurable understanding of the novel. Nasdat is heavily influenced by Russian, usually taking a word from Russian and anglicizing it, but retaining some form of the original pronunciation. For example, chelloveck means fellow or person in Nadsat as well as in Russian word, chelovyek.The following sentence shows some of the other influences at work as well. â€Å"I read this with care, my brothers, slurping away at the old chai, cup after tass after chasha, crunching my lomticks of black toast dipped in jammiwam and eggiweg. † Translated loosely, the sentence above shows Alex drinking m any cups of tea, and eating slices of toast and jam with eggs. To dive in deeper, a general understanding of the words is necessary. Chai is the Russian word for tea, but there are also parallels with the English slang word char.Tass is a word which is based on the French and German words for cup (tasse and Tasse) and chasha has origins in the Russian words for teacup (chashka) and a poetical word for a large cup (chasha). Lomtick reflects the Russian lomtik meaning slice. Both jammiwam and eggiweg are made-up, childish renditions of the words jam and egg. The introduction of these words will invariably cause a first time reader of A Clockwork Orange to have problems following the action of the book and may also cause frustration.This fact distances the reader from what is happening, which helps to produce a number of effects on the reader. One of these effects is a well placed discomfort that at not being able to understand what is being said by Alex. The feeling is similar to trav elling in a foreign country and not being able to understand the native language. The reader, much like the traveler doesn’t know whether what is being said is friendly, hostile, threatening or otherwise. Interestingly enough, the language is still intelligible even though it does slow the reader and force them to interpret Burgess’ intention.The difference between using a completely foreign language and one that is even slightly understandable is that nadsat is, for the most part, a form of slang, describing things for which there is already a word in English, but in a different way. As a linguist, Burgess was all too aware that slang can date rather quickly – words like daddy-o, groovy or radical which could root a book or character in a particular time unless it was being employed deliberately for humorous effect.By making up a new type of slang, Burgess could ensure that the book transcended the time in which it was written and is still all too relevant now, and probably will be in the future. The nasdat language also plays another important role in distinguishing who among the characters is a ‘teen' and who is not. As Alex explains to F. Alexander; â€Å"Oh, that,† I said, â€Å"is what we call nadsat talk. All the teens use that, sir. † Furthermore then, people who are not teens, such as Alex's parents, P. R. Deltoid, the prison chaplain and Joe (the lodger), speak normally and do not use the nadsat.The transformation from one characters use of nasdat is at the end of the story when Alex meets his old ‘droog' Pete, and his wife. The contrast between the speech of Alex, who is still using the nadsat, and Pete, who is now speaking normally, coupled with Georgina's (Pete's wife) amusement at Alex's speech creates a colourful picture showing the contrast between the nadsat and the eloquence of Pete's speech. Another feature of the story is that the narration of the book is in the first person narrative, and the way in which Alex addresses the readers, quite often with the words ‘O my brothers,' makes the story being told more personal.His use of first person seems to center the story specifically for the reader. Therefore, it makes the reader feel like Alex is speaking directly to him/her and that they are in receipt of an amazing story which is only being told to a chosen few. This use of language is incongruous to the use of the nadsat because, although Burgess is making the reader feel part of a select group with the informal wording of the narrative and the directness of the way Alex addresses the reader, we are also left feeling out in the cold because of the unfamiliar understanding of the nadsat.Another effect of language is that the violence in the book is partially veiled, making it seem less shocking. As Burgess himself explained; â€Å"to tolchock a chelloveck in the kishkas does not sound as bad as booting a man in the guts. † (Cite) Covering up of the violence usi ng artificial language works because throughout the course of the story readers have to be thinking about what words such as yarbles (testicles), britva (razor) and oozy (chain) mean. The language veil leaves Burgess free to have Alex do what he wants without the reader judging him so harshly.By disconnecting the emotive response to the words from their meaning, nadsat creates a cushioning layer between the acts of violence and how the reader understands these acts. The forced interpretation causes a delay in the mind of the reader as he/she stops to figure out what the â€Å"replaced† word means to the story. Burgess' smokescreen use of the language was intentional in order to shield the reader from the extreme violence and cause him/her to build a rapport with the main character, further building empathy. Works Cited Burgess, Anthony. A Clockwork Orange. New York. W. W. Norton & Company, 1986. Print

I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings Critique

I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings is the autobiography of Maya Angelou. I find it to be a rather interesting novel, since it is based on a true story. It also helps the reader understand how black people lived and felt during that period. In the novel, there is a wide range of themes, from family ties, to rape, and even literacy. In Maya Angelou’s I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, the three main themes are racism, prejudice and the roll of black women. The first and most visible theme in the novel is racism. During 1969, it is common to see a black person as inferior to a white person. In the novel, Angelou shows the crudeness of white Southern attitudes toward African Americans. For example, in chapter 24, Marguerite goes to the dentist and Dr. Lincoln, a white man, refuses to treat her because she is black. He says: â€Å"I’d rather stick my hand in a dog’s mouth than in a nigger’s. † (Angelou 189). Not even because of necessary medical attention does a white person leave aside the race and treat a black patient. Putting aside her strong feelings against racism, Angelou demonstrates how she develops the understanding of the rules for surviving in a racist society. For example, in chapter 5, when the â€Å"powhitetrash† mock Momma, she stood humming while Marguerite is filed with rage, indignation and helplessness. Momma instead shows her how to maintain dignity and pride while dealing with racism. With her indifference towards the disrespectful white girls, Momma serves as a role model to all black people in her community by being the bigger person in a situation like this. The second theme in the novel is prejudice. Maya, her friends and her relatives will always be subject to prejudice simply because they are black. For example, in chapter 23, during Marguerite’s graduation, Mr.  Edward Donleavy gives a speech in which he mentions how blacks only achieve greatness through sports, not through academics: One of the first-line football tacklers at Arkansas Agricultural and Mechanical College had graduated from good old Lafayette Country Training School†¦ One of the best basketball players at Fisk sank his first ball right here at Lafayette Country Training School. (Angelou 179) The fact that Mr. Donleavy assumes that students from this school are only good for sports, simply because of their race, shows how he speaks based on prejudice beliefs. Prejudice in the novel is seen from both sides: in white people and black people. Since most white folks in Stamps mistreat blacks, black people assume all whites are the same, which means they are also prejudice against white people. For example, in chapter 2, Marguerite mentions her passion for literature, especially for Shakespeare, a white writer. She says how Bailey and she can’t mention Shakespeare to Momma: â€Å"she’d question us about the author and we’d have to tell her that Shakespeare was white, and it wouldn’t matter to her whether he was dead or not. (Angelou 14). Shakespeare is a great writer, but Momma doesn’t know this since she is prejudice against white writers and doesn’t give herself the chance to find out about this writers greatness. The third theme presented in the novel is black women’s roll. Angelou presents women’s condition during this period and describes their lives in a male-dominated society. She also shows how it’s even harder being a black woman, having to overcome this storm of sexism and racism. Some women are able to do so and become great. For example, Momma is a successful black woman, who owns a store and is considered to be wealthy. She is able to overcome the condition she is submitted to by society and become the most successful black woman in Stamps. Marguerite also serves as an example for black women’s roll during 1969. She lives in a hostile world defined by beauty in terms of whiteness: Wouldn’t they be surprised when one day I woke out of my black ugly dream, and my real hair, which was long and blond, would take the place of this kinky mass that Momma wouldn’t let me straighten? My light-blue eyes were going to hypnotize them†¦ (Angelou 2) Marguerite believes the only way to be a beautiful and successful woman is by being white. With the help of strong female role models in her family and community: Momma, Vivian, Grandmother Baxter, and Bertha Flowers, she is able to overcome her racist and sexist beliefs, succeed in her life and become the great woman she is known to be today. Maya Angelou’s I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings is a true story about the author’s hard life during the 1960’s, a time in which black people are seen as inferior in many different aspects by society. The novel shows how they fight against racism, sexism and prejudice, and how white people also experience prejudice from black people. These themes are presented in the most realistic and crude way possible. In the end, Maya transforms from a victim of prejudice and racism with an inferiority complex to a self-confident young woman who is able to react to racism with dignity and pride.

Strategic Management Case Study Write up Schon Klinik-Eating Disorder Assignment

Strategic Management Case Study Write up Schon Klinik-Eating Disorder - Assignment Example During the last 11 years, it was able to add 8 more hospitals from 7 and its annual revenue rapidly tripled. The level of occupancy rates has been maintained by the means of expertise in particular conditions and brand recognition in Schon Hospital. The Schà ¶n Klinik patients in 2012, about 20% had private health insurance where the typical German hospital had only 10%.(Porter, Stanton & Howman, 2013). The introduction of a culture by Fechner’s slogan †Measurable Tangible Better† has become an ideal prospect for Schà ¶n Klinik.As a result of poor established therapy in eating disorders, Schà ¶n Klink’s validated a systematic approaches on treatment and improvements in patient support. The hospital has been able to implement on outcome measurement where every clinician is required to measure results. The patient-reported experience measures implemented, where all patients admitted to Schà ¶n Klinik are required to complete a survey on arrangement of care, how they are treated by staff, hospital ambience, meals and information provided, resulting in a substantial rate of reviews from the patients (Porter, Stanton & Howman, 2013). The reviews from various sites of the hospital has helped the management to identify areas of weaker performance and proposing ideas on effective procedures giving the clinic a competitive advantage. Schon uses the outcome information with other stakeholders to evaluate care processes and new treatments in terms of their cost and clinical impact by suggesting approaches for improvement. Thus, ensuring the adoption of clinicians’ responsibility in their respective areas in the hospitals. The Schon’s model for delivering care for eating disorders consists of a baseline set of surveys which are done instantly following admission and the other set one week prior to discharge. The patients undergo a structured interview of Anorexic and Bulimic Syndromes (SIAB-S). Further, every day a patient’s BMI and weight are recorded and

What Are the Political, Economic and Social Challenges of Women in the Assignment - 1

What Are the Political, Economic and Social Challenges of Women in the Developing World - Assignment Example By allowing women to have a voice with respect to the political process, a whole new range of political perspective is opened up for analysis. Conversely, culture itself oftentimes plays an even more powerful role than does the democratization of a nation. For this reason, in nations where the harsh constraints of a conservative interpretation of religion is the norm, it is likely that even if women have the right to vote, the traditional cultural understanding of gender roles and the female’s place within society will be primarily interpreted through such a cultural lens and therefore work to diminish the overall rights enjoyed by women on aggregate. Such examples of the constricting role of culture within the political sphere can aptly be recognized in multiple regions the world over; oftentimes the result of the prevalence of extreme adherence to a particular form of religious belief. 2. What are the political, economic and social challenges of women in the developing world ? (5pts) Such an impediment strongly reduces the competitiveness of society in terms of the global economy. Furthermore, as previously discussed, the key political challenge that women face within many developing countries is under-representation in the political process; either due to a systemic form of sexism or a cultural tradition that does not put a high level of emphasis on women in positions of authority and/or power. As such, without the requisite representation of women in the political process, it is hard to generate a degree of interest among the female electorate the commit to participation due to the fact that there is little interest in a process that they may otherwise see as completely male-dominated (Adjei et al 234).  

Gangs in America Why are they so out of control Essay - 2

Gangs in America Why are they so out of control - Essay Example Through the advanced technology in the entire United States, drug trafficking has been simplified and even gang recruitment is easier where the activities are mastermind through the use of technology leading to killings and other insecurity issues (Schneider, 1999). The expansion of gangs in the States has also increased in the streets due to the usage of social networking. The use of drugs and drug trafficking is unlawful and it is unethical to the States. To address the problem the federal government together with the Federal Bureau of Investigation should make sure that the advanced technology that is being used by individuals is monitored. Each and every activity that is taking place in United States should be tracked through the use of social media. Gangs are being recruited and expanding in the social media and thus close monitoring of all the activities should be done to ensure all those unethical practices in the States are curbed and eliminated in New York and California States among others. In California, landmark legislation referred to as Juvenile Crime Enforcement was passed in 1996 and Accountability Challenge Grant Program worthy $50 million was started to reduce the crime and prevent young individuals from conducting criminal activities. Young individuals associating themselves with gangs who threat and others cause mass killing in the States has been an ethical issue in entire United States. The young individuals who engage themselves in criminal activities die in many circumstances since they are confronted by the security officers making the youths to be reduced in the society. To curb this unethical issue, it is important for the federal government to fund and implement the program where juvenile rehabilitations centers will be structured where the violent and chronic juvenile offenders will be accommodated. Counseling and other disciplinary acts should be conducted to ensure that

Set350 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Set350 - Research Paper Example The combustion of the fuel produces a force that steers the machine, but this was not attained overnight. It was attained after continuous research and experimentations by various scientists. This paper explores the evolution of the diesel engine from 1893 to 1900. Rudolph started the development of the diesel engine in 1992 after filing and acquiring a patent in Germany believing that an engine that automatically ignites would have lower risk of fire, long service life, and move long distances using low amounts of fuel (1, par 1). Through various experimentations, Rudolph’s efforts bore fruits in 1893 when he, for the first time, produced a model that operated at 26% efficiency an efficiency which was twice that of steam engines that were in use (4, par 1). Rudolph continued improving his model and in February 1897, he ran a practical diesel engine which he exhibited at a Fair in Paris in the same year (1, par 2; 2, par 2). Apparently, this model, which operated at a whopping efficiency of 75%, portrayed Rudolph’s idea and vision as it was primarily powered by the original biodiesel, peanut oil (1, par 1). However, he hoped to improve the usability and competitiveness of the engine by developing mechanisms that would allow the u se of biomass fuel as this will also make it affordable to farmers, industries as well as the common folk (1, par 2; 4, par 3). In 1899, Rudolph licensed Krupp and Sulzer who immediately became major manufacturers of the engine (2, par 3). Apparently, previous engines had huge fuel injection propels that made them heavy and unfavorable for shipping (4, par 2). Thus, the new small and light diesel engine benefited submarines with various submarines being built in 1910, 1912, and 1913. Due to his political ideas that confronted those of the German government, Rudolph is thought to have been

Marketing online forum Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Marketing online forum - Assignment Example Student’s reply: E-marketing will truly affect consumer perceptions of privacy and security. As technology continues to improve over the years, methods of advertising will advance as well. Companies will always match up with other companies, trying to attract as many consumers as they can. All the popular websites feature internet marketing; search engines, online forums and communities such as My Space and Facebook, and company websites. On online communities such as Facebook, ads pop up that match up with ones interests that may be displayed in their profile. This is another advancement companies have made to promote themselves. It is controversial because information in someones account has been made available to online companies in promoting themselves. This happens all over the internet, yet people still continue to use the internet because it is quick and easy, and often times, requires little work. E-marketing has kept up with the consumer. Marketing has gone from paper , to graphic, to electronic, and with the help of the internet, international. Marketers used pop-up ads to get a users attention which the consumers disliked. Now they fill the sides of pages while users surf the internet. Marketers have offered online newsletters to users on many sites. This is one method I believe has worked. Companies ask a user if they would like to join a news letter, and they receive these letters only if they agree. This way, if they are not interested in the company, they will not be bothered. This was one approach marketers used that I felt worked and respected peoples privacy. Response: I agree with the above statement. E-marketing has come to stay and unless a major obstacle or glitch like the Y2K scare interrupts the internet connectivity, which is most unlikely, companies will continue to develop new strategies to sell their products on the internet. However, this will happen only in the tech savvy developed world. Other

Political Science 419 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Political Science 419 - Essay Example This theory was later explicitly formulated in Marx’s Critique of Political Economy in 1859. He emphasized the major periods he perceived in history to begin with primitive communism, then slavery, feudalism and capitalism. He thought that eventually, these various stages in history would end in the stage of socialism (Marx). Karl Marx argued that socialism would provide economic equality, eradicate poverty and provide a utopian society where people could live in social solidarity. How to lay the foundation and eventually operate the structure of socialism that would abolish the so-called latest mode of production which is capitalism is something that Karl Marx wasn’t able to explain in details. Many disgruntled elements of a capitalist society have been attracted to Marx’s philosophy. They view the Marxian doctrine as the best way out of the cruel exploitations and dog-eat-dog jungle associated with the free enterprise economic system. Marx promises an It is in this regard that capitalism will survive even with the temperament of the economic environment. It is not too difficult to identify the dangerous features of Marxian philosophy. Marx downgrades a human being by regarding him as a mere material being. The root of Marxian philosophy is materialism. According to him, only matter matters. Nothing else exists but matter. Man is completely conditioned by the material facts of life. Thus, there is nothing sacred about human life. Every man is merely a pawn that can and should be sacrificed if the good of the communist party should so dictate. Marx’s vision of pure communism is the height of utopia and completely disregards the basic traits of human nature. It is indeed quite difficult to visualize ourselves as unselfish saints who will willingly work for the common good without being motivated by economic rewards. Man is not just a material being. He is both body and soul, flesh and spirit, mind and matter. An economic system is not something that

Women Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Women - Essay Example Equality refers to the state where individuals living in a society are free from the discrimination at all the levels. However, the discrimination and its various components are subject to continuous change with respect to time, knowledge, experience and understanding of people. This indicates that things which were acceptable for a particular society few years back might not be appreciable in the current circumstances. Let’s talk about women and their social status which was limited to the domestic work few decades before. Due to this they were substantially facing equality issues. But today the modern human society does not have any place for such differences and women are no longer bounded to the domestic restrictions. Though women have entered into the work force, the employment opportunities are limited for them and consequently they are often subject to employment based discrimination. According to Abella, equality in employment signifies that every individual is given a n equal working opportunity irrespective of all the innate abilities (Abella; Chapter 1: Defining Equality in Employment, 1984). In the contemporary world equality in employment has yet another perspective i.e. employees must be treated as per their differences, because if we are ignoring the individual differences for the sake of equality then as per the arguments of Abella, it is also a form of discrimination. There are basically two types of differences, one which arises due to personal actions and policies such as education, financial status, etc. and other is solely based upon the innate characteristics such as gender, ethnic background or disabilities. The latter one can be accommodated through equality in employment. One of the most significant methods to apply employment equality in a workplace is to remove the individual differences based on gender, disability, ethnicity or race because they do not have any acceptable justification (Abella; Chapter 1: Defining Equality in E mployment, 1984). In this regard Agocs, Burr and Somerset have given several remedies which require the employers to first eradicate the current employment obstacles faced by the disadvantaged groups of the society such as aboriginal people, women and other minorities, who need to have an equal employment opportunity without any difference of treatment. Their innate disabilities and skill deficiencies must be accommodated. The second most crucial remedy is the surety of prevention from future discrimination. Third remedy focuses on the equal distribution of resources among the workforce regardless of gender, race, ethnicity or disability (Agocs, Burr and Somerset; Chapter 1: The State of Art, 1992). The Report of the Royal Commission 1984 has a legislation regarding the equality in employment which considered compulsory employment regulations so as to ensure equal employment opportunity for the disadvantaged groups of the society. In the later part of the second chapter, authors hav e discussed further solutions that can play an important role in the elimination of discrimination and projection of equal employment opportunities. In this regard we first of all require developing a sound understanding of what does inequity means and where does it exist in a workplace. Subsequently we need to remove all the barriers for the disadvantaged groups through employment equity programs. Afterwards we necessitate developing smooth access to the jobs with an additional accommodation program which satisfies the needs and requirements of an intensely diverse workforce. Equal Employment opportunity also requires the employers to maintain an ethical and hospitable internal working environment

This great essay i found about life (not mine) Essay Example for Free

This great essay i found about life (not mine) Essay â€Å"Life is beautiful and yet life is not a bed of roses. Though it is full of ups and downs it has many facets of blessings and successes. To some people, life is hard, cruel and merciless. These set of people see life as punishment throughout their entire lives. They therefore resigned themselves to fate, believing all is finished. To them, nothing that they do can ever be good. They take delight in committing crimes and maiming others to avenge their ill-fortune. They lost every sense of direction and most times, some of them go as far as committing suicide, just to escape the injustice life has meted out to them. But there are those who see life as a challenge, a channel of discovery and innovation, a prospect for success and a gateway to wealth. To them life is sweet, colourful and kind. No matter the situation these people find themselves, they keep pressing on, believing in a cause, a cause to succeed and get the most out of life. No wonder an adage says, â€Å"Where there is life, there is hope.† The will to succeed or fail lies within an individual jurisdiction. You can live life to the fullest with utmost satisfaction and fulfillment if you determine with all your mind, body and soul to succeed. On the other hand, life can be miserable to you if you take everything for granted and wait on fate to play itself out. Setting of goals and strategic plans that will strive no matter the odds which may move against you is one of the basic things needed to get the best out of life. These goals which must be result oriented, should be followed up consistently even if things seem blurred or unyielding at first. Also, the mind is the centre of everything. It controls your thoughts and beliefs. A focused mind has never fail. A positive mind helps one to discover his talents and potentials. Great men and women, both living and dead, had their minds focused on something and nothing deterred them from achieving their dreams. Each of them had a belief, should I say faith, which they held onto, they nurture the belief, focused all their attention and live on it. And today, we have benefited in one way or the other from their inventions and great ideas. Life is a challenge. And for anyone to succeed in life, he must be ready to show the stuff he is made of. He must be ready to sacrifice his time and build up his mind frame toward success. What is happening in our environment should not influence or affect us in our daily quest for success in life. Instead, we should control the happenings around us.

Agricultural science and practice

Agricultural science and practice REVIEW OF LITERATURE INTERCROPPING Intercropping of cereals and grain legumes is a neglected theme in agricultural science and practice in both conventional and organic farming systems (Dahlmann, and Von Fragstein2006). The fast rising population in many tropical countries is one of the reasons for enormous growing demand for food. The increasing urbanization due to world growing population has affected food production leading to irrevocable loss of arable land. Opening up new land for cultivation can enhance the decrease of agriculture. Farmers and researchers should be conscious that cost-benefit ratio bringing new land under cultivation is smaller than that of increasing production of already cultivated land, which may lead to increase in production per unit area. Intercropping tenders farmers the opportunity to engage natures principle of diversity on their farms. Spatial arrangements of plants, planting rates, and maturity dates must be considered when planning intercrops. Intercrops can be more fruitful than growing monocropping. Many different intercrop systems have been studied, including mixed intercropping, strip cropping, and customary intercropping provisions. Pest management benefits can also be realized from intercropping due to augmented diversity. Harvesting options for intercrops include hand harvest, machine harvest for on-farm feed, and animal harvest of the standing crop. Most grain-crop mixtures with similar ripening times cannot be machine-harvested to produce a marketable commodity since few buyers purchase mixed grains. Dispite its advantages intercropping is neglected due to complex nature of intercropping systems. In intercropping systems an LER measures 1.0, it tells us that the amount of land required for crops grown together is the same as that for these grown in pure stand (i.e., neither loss nor loss due to intercropping over pure stands). LERs above 1.0 demonstrate an advantage to intercropping, while numbers below 1.0 diplay a disadvantage to intercropping. For example, an LER of 1.25 tells us that the yield produced in the total intercrop system would have required 25% more land if planted in pure stands. If the LER was 0.75, we know the intercrop yield was only 75% of that of the same amount of land that grew pure stands. Pakistan is a subtropical country having sufficient resources with high intensity of sunlight required for plant growth. Therefore, possibility of intercropping of different crops on the same piece of land in a year needs to be explored for effective and efficient utilization of these natural resources. Intercropping is being looked as an efficient utilization of these natural resources and economical production system as it increases the production per unit area and time. Presently, interest in intercropping is increasing among the small growers because of their diversified needs and meagre farm returns from the monocropping system. Planning of cropping system should be done yearly on entire catchment basis. The type of planning should lead to a proper balance between food, fiber and fodder crops. When the rainfall is between 500-700 mm with a distinct period of moisture surplus, intercropping system should be adopted for improved crop production. Even in higher rainfall areas (750- 1100 mm) intercropping facilitates growing either cereal-legume or legume-legume system of different maturity patterns. Intercropping minimize risk of crop failure in drylands. Mixed cropping (mixing seeds of two or more crops and broad casting the mixture) should be avoided as it hinders post-sowing operations. Choice of varieties with in the crops is very important to harness total intercropping advantage. Cereal-legume intercropping systems should be advocated to minimize fertilizer use,.? reduce pest and disease incidence, produce balance foods, ?provide protein rich legume fodder for cattle,? take full advantage of growing seaso n. Cereal-legume intercropping plays an important role in subsistence food production in both developed and developing countries, especially in situations of inadequate water resources (Tsubo et al., 2005). Intercropping cereals and grain legumes can be very potential for both organic and conservative farmers. The use of land equivalent ratio (LER) as a measure for calculating the cropping advantage of intercrops over sole crops is simple, ignoring weed inhibition, yield reliability, grain quality, and minimum advantageous yield are all relevant factors for farmers perspective (Prins and de Wit 2005). Intercropped legumes secure most of their nitrogen from the atmosphere and not compete with maize nitrogen resources (Adu-Gyamfi et al. ,2007). Increased diversity of the physical structure of plants and increased leaf cover in an intercropping system facilitates to reduce weed infestations once crop are established (Beet1990). Having a variety of root system in the soil reduces water loss, enhances water uptake and reduce transpiration. The increased transpiration may make the microclimate cooler, which cools the soil and decrease evaporation (Innis 1997). In this way during times of water stress, intercropped plants utilize a larger percentage of available water from the field than monocropped plants. Creating windbreaks may also modify the microclimate. Rows of maize in a field with a short stature crop would reduce wind speed above the shorter crop and thus deceasechance of desiccation (Beet1990). Intercropped legumes fix most of their nitrogen from the atmosphere and not compete with maize for nitrogen resources (Adu-Gyamfi et al. ,2007; Vesterager et al.,2008). Diversification of cropping systems, i.e. smaller fields and mixtures of crop species (intercropping) was much more in vouge Pre World War II. Intercropping, the simultaneously cultivation of more than one species in the same field, is a cropping method, which often result in a more efficient use of resources, cause more stable yields in problematic environments and a method to reduce problems with weeds, plant pathogens and nitrogen losses post grain legume harvest.In this context a greater introduction of longterm rotations, intercrops and grain legumes play an important role (Jensen 1997; Karlen1994). Intercropping of cereal and legume crops facilitates to maintain and improve soil fertility (Andrew, 1979). Intercropping of legumes with cereals has been popular in tropics (Hauggaard-Nielsen et al.,, 2001; Tsubo et al.,,2005) and rain-fed tracts of the globe (Banik et al.,, 2000; Ghosh, 2004; Agegnehu et al.,, 2006; Dhima et al.,,2007) due to its benefits for soil conservation (Anil et al., 1998), weed control (Poggio, 2005; Banik et al.,,2006), lodging resistance (Anil et al.,, 1998), yield enhancemnent (Anil et al.,, 1998; Chen et al.,, 2004), hay curing, forage preservation over pure legumes, more crude protein percentage and protein yield (Qamar et al.,, 1999; Karadag and Buyukburc, 2004), and contols legume root parasite infections (Fenandez-Aparicio et al.,,2007). Different seeding ratios or planting patterns for cereal-legume intercropping have been accomplished by many researchers (Tsubo et al.,, 2001; Karadag and Buyukburc, 2004; Banik et al.,, 2006; Dhima et al.,, 2007). Competition among mixtures is thought to be the major characteristic affecting yield as compared with monocropping of cereals. Species or cultivar selections, seeding ratios, and inter and intra specific competition among mixtures may influence the growth of the species grown in intercropping systems in rain-fed areas (Santalla et al.,, 2001; Karadag and Buyukburc, 2004; Carr et al.,, 2004; Agegnehu et al.,, 2006; Banik et al.,, 2006; Dhima et al.,, 2007). Various competition indices such as land equivalent ratio (LER), relative crowding coefficient (RCC), competitive ratio (CR), actual yield loss (AYL), monetary advantage(MI) and intercropping advantage(IA) have been anticipated to portray competition within and economic advantages of intercropping systems (Banik et al.,, 2000; Ghosh, 2004; Agegnehu et al.,, 2006; Banik et al.,, 2006; Dhima et al.,, 2007). However, such indices have not been used for maize and common bean intercropping to determine the competition among species and also economic advantages of each intercropping system in the East Mediterranean region. Higher monetary returns were obtained compared to sole cropping when bush beans intercropped with sweet maize (Santalla et al.,, 2001). Higher seed yield and net income under planting pattern with changing mix-proportions may be explained in higher total productivity under intercropping with relatively less input investment (Banik et al.,, 2006). Tsubo et al., (2005) formed a simulation model to find out the best planting methods for maize and bean intercrops in sub-arid South Africa. Based on 52 years of weather data, they compared the best planting time, optimal water saturation at planting, maize plant density, and bean plant density to receive the highest LER, energy value (EV), and monetary value (MV) from the intercropped field. For every combination of factors, a LER greater than 1.0 was found, indicating that intercropping of maize and beans increases total yield. The simulations show that initial soil water content has the greatest influence on intercropping productivity. Bean plant density had no influence on maize or bean yields, indicating that maize yield is not affected by bean intercropping, although bean yields were decreased in the intercropped system (Tsubo et al., 2005). High densities of maize maximized maize yield and calorie production, but high densities of beans maximized financial return. Decline of e xternal inputs and increases of homegrown feed together with a more efficient nutrient use from leguminous symbiotic dinitrogen (N2) fixation (SNF) can result in a decrease of nitrogen and mineral losses. Maize-legume intercropping systems are able to lessen amount of nutrients taken from the soil in comparasion to a maize monocrop. Organizing the complication of exchanges that are possible due to the physical constraints of diversity are present in the farm system is vital part of reducing the need for external inputs and moving toward sustainability (Herrera, 1974). Increasing diversity often allows better resources use efficiency in agro ecosystem because with higher diversity, there is larger microhabitat differentiation, allowing the components species and varieties of the system to grow in an environment ideally fitting to its unique requirements (Mazaheri and Oveysi, 2004; Willey and Reddy1981; and Yancey, 1994). A key and straight way of rising diversity of an agro ecosystem is intercropping system that allows interaction between the individuals of the different crops and varieties (Mazaheri, 2004; Willey, 1981 and Venkatswarlu1981). Intercropping can add temporal diversity through the sequential planting of different crops during the same season (Yancey, 1994). Importance of multiple cropping is increasing world food supplies. An LER value of 1.0, indicating no difference in yield between the intercrop and the collection of monocultures (Mazaheri and Oveysi, 2004 and Kurata 1986). Any Value greater than 1.0 indicates a yield advantage for intercrop. A LER of 1.2 for example, indicates that the area planted to monocultures would need to be 20% greater than the area planted to intercrop for the two to produce the same combined yields (Laster and Furr,1972). Intercropping in cassava was beneficial in increasing the biological yield, tuber equivalent yield and land use efficiency. Cassava tuber equivalent yield, LER, ATER and AHER were higher in cassava + cowpea combinations.(Amanullah et al., 2006). Mixed culture (or intercropping) of legumes and cereals is an old practice in tropical agriculture that dates back to ancient civilization. The main objective of intercropping has been to maximum utilization of resources such as space, light and nutrients (Willey, 1990; Morris and Garrity, 1993; Li et al.,, 2003b), as well as to improve crop quality and quantity (Nel, 1975; Izaurralde et al.,, 1990; Mpairwe et al.,, 2002). Other benefits include water quality control through least use of inorganic nitrogen fertilisers that pollute the environment (Crew and Peoples, 2004). The contemporary drift in global agriculture is to search for highly productive, sustainable and environmentally safe cropping systems (Crew and Peoples, 2004). This has resulted into renewed interest in cropping systems research (Vandermeer, 1989). When two crops are grown in association, interspecific competition or facilitation between plants may take place (Vandermeer, 1989; Zhang et al.,, 2003).Different studies have shown that mixtures of cereals and legumes produce higher grain yields than either crop grown unaccompanied (Mead and Willey, 1980; Horwith, 1984; Tariah and Wahua, 1985; Ofori and Stern, 1987a; Lawson and Kang, 1990; Watiki et al.,, 1993; Peter and Runge-Metzger, 1994; Skovgard and Pats, 1999; Rao and Mathuva, 2000; Olufemi et al.,, 2001; Mpairwe et al.,, 2002; Dapaah et al.,, 2003). In such crop mixtures, the yield increases were not only due to enhanced nitrogen nourishment of the cereal component, but also to other unexplored causes (Nel, 1975; Connolly et al.,, 2001). Many of the unknown and less research processes occur in the rhizosphere of mixtures (Connolly et al.,, 2001; Zhang et al.,, 2003, 2004). The rhizosphere soil is the narrow zone of soil neighboring the roots where soil, micro-organisms and roots jointly play key roles in the soil ecosystem. Compared with the bulk soil, the rhizosphere has diverse biological, physical and chemical soil properties. It is rich in root exudates, and, therefore, play a major role in nutrient mobilisation and microbial activities (Dakora and Phillips, 2002; Dakora, 2003). So far however, little attention has been paid to rhizosphere effects on crops grown in mixtures (Connolly et al.,, 2001; Zhang et al.,, 2003; 2004), where interaction between different organisms is high. The major management practices employed in mixed cultures to attain good yield includes the enhancement of microclimatic conditions, improved utilisation and recycling of soil nutrients, improved soil quality, provision of favourable hab itats for plants and stabilisation of soil, among others (Juma et al.,, 1997). Most of intercropping systems are intentionally made and manipulated to optimise the use of spatial, temporal, and physical resources both above-and belowground, by maximising positive interactions (facilitation) and minimizing negative ones (competition) among the components (Willey and Osiru, 1972; Willey, 1979; Mead and Willey, 1980; Horwith, 1985; Ofori and Stern, 1986, 1987a, b; Jose et al.,, 2000; Silwana and Lucas, 2002). An understanding of the biological and chemical processes and mechanisms involved in the distribution of resources in such systems is indispensable. The complex interactions in legume/cereal cropping systems such as those used by traditional farmers have received little research attention (Connolly et al.,, 2001; Zhang et al.,, 2004) because quantitative rhizosphere studies in the field involving complex mixtures are notoriously complex and cumbersome. These conditions are achieved by manipulating management practices such as planting patterns of the mixtures with the selection of appropriate cropping systems. Interactions will occur in the growth process, especially when the component species are exploiting the resources above-and below-ground (Vandermer, 1989; Willey, 1990; Ong et al.,, 1996) from the same niche or at the same time. In crop mixtures, any species utilizing the same combination of resources will be in direct competition. However, based on differences in phenological characteristics of species in asocition, the interaction among them may lead to an increased capture of a limiting growth resource (Willey and Osiru, 1972; Willey, 1979; Mead and Willey, 1980; Horwith, 1985; Ofori and Stern, 1986, 1987a,b; Silwana and Lucas, 2002) and then amassing larger total yield than the collective production of those species if they were grown separately on an equivalent land area (Mead and Ndakidemi 2527 Willey, 1980; Horwith, 1984; Tariah and Wahua, 1985; Ofori and Stern, 1987a; Lawson and Kang, 1990; Watiki et al.,, 1993; Peter and Runge-Metzger, 1994; Myaka, 1995; Asafu-Agyei et al.,, 1997; Skovgard and Pats, 1999; Rao and Mathuva, 2000; Olufemi et al.,, 2001; Dapaah et al.,, 2003). Thus, mixed cropping systems between cereals and legumes may face a complex series of inter- and intra-specific interaction (Izaurralde et al.,, 1990; Giller and Cadisch, 1995; Evans et al.,, 2001; Li et al.,, 2003c) geared by modifications and utilisation of light, water, nutrients and enzymes. Most annual crop mixtures such as those involving cereals and legumes are grown almost at the same time, and develop root systems that acquire the same soil zone for resources (Horwith, 1984; Chang and Shibles, 1985a,b; Reddy et al.,, 1994; Jensen et al.,, 2003). Under such circumstances, below-ground competition for resources such as nutrients is most likely to take place. For example, research has shown that activities in maize + cowpea intercropping take place between the top 30-45 cm of soil, and their intensity decreased with depth (Maurya and Lal, 1981; McIntyre et al.,, 1997). Because of these interactions, cowpea yields can be reduced significantly in relationto that of maize (Watiki et al.,, 1993). In contrast to some negative effects on yield, root systems in mixtures may provide some of the major favorable effects on soil and plants. These include, amongst others, carbon enrichment through higher carbon return (Ridder et al.,, 1990; Vanlauwe et al.,, 1997), discharge of phenolics, phytosiderophores and carboxylic acids as root exudates by companion plants (Dakora and Phillips, 2002; Dakora, 2003). These compounds play a major role in the mineral nutrition of plants. For instance, some studies have displayed that, in P-deficient soils, pigeon pea roots utilize piscidic, malonic, and oxalic acids to solubilise Fe-, Ca- and Al-bound P (Ae et al.,, 1990). Once mobilised, P and Fe then become available for uptake by the pigeon pea plant as well as by plant species grown in association and micro flora in the cropping system.This is due to the fact that, thus far, research efforts on mixed cultures has centered on the intra- and inter-specific competition for light and water, and re search reports on competition for nutrients in legumes and cereal mixtures (Connolly et al.,, 2001; Zhang et al.,, 2003, 2004). It is, therefore, imperative to discover how the rhizosphere systems of the associated plant species in mixtures interact under different legume-cereal cropping systems. Rhizospheric pH changes in different management systems in legume/cereal mixtures Many plants have the ability to alter the pH of their rhizosphere (Hoffland et al.,, 1989, 1992; Raven et al.,, 1990; Degenhardt et al.,, 1998; Muofhe and Dakora, 2000; Dakora and Phillips, 2002) and improve nutrient availability such as P, K, Ca, and Mg, which are otherwise fixed and not available to plants (Vandermeer, 1989; Hauggaard- Nielson and Jensen, 2005). For instance, legumes induce numerous reactions that modify the rhizosphere pH (Jarvis and Robson, 1983; McLay et al.,, 1997; Tang et al.,, 1998, 2001) and influence nutrient uptake (Brady, 1990; Vizzatto et al.,, 1999). For example, Dakora et al., (2000) have shown that due to pH changes in the rhizosphere, Cyclopia genistoides, a tea-producing legume native to South Africa, increased nutrient availability in its rhizosphere by 45 120% for P, 108 161% for K, 120 148% for Ca, 127 225% for Mg and 117 250% for boron (B) compared to bulk non-rhizosphere soil. Hence, legumes may take up higher amounts of base cations, and in the process of balancing internal charge, release H+ ions into the rhizosphere that results in soil acidification (Jarvis and Robson, 1983; McLay et al.,, 1997; Tang et al.,, 1998, 2001; Sas et al.,, 2001; Dakora and Phillips, 2002; Cheng et al.,, 2004). Other legumes such as alfalfa, chickpea, lupines, and cowpea can release considerable amounts of organic anions and lower their rhizospere pH (Liptone et al.,, 1987; Dinkelaker et al.,, 1989, 1995; Braum and Helmke, 1995; Gilbert et al.,, 1999; Neumann et al.,, 1999; Rao et al.,, 2002; Li et al.,, 2004b), a condition favorable for the hydrolysis of organic P and hence improving P2O5 nutrition for plants and micro organism in the soil. In the same context, white lupine (Lupinus albus) exuded organic acids anions and protons that lowered rhizosphere pH and recovered substantial amount of P2O5 from the soil and made them more available to wheat than when it was grown in solitary cropping system (Horst and Waschkies, 1987; Kamh et al.,, 1999). Similarly, pigeon pea increased P2O5 uptake of the intercropped sorghum by exuding piscidic acid anions that chelated Fe3+ and subsequently released P2O5 from FePO4 (Ae et al.,, 1990). In a field trial, faba bean facilitated P2O5 uptake by maize (Z hang et al.,, 2001; Li et al.,, 1999, 2003b; Zhang and Li, 2003). In another comparative study, the ability of chickpea to mobilise organic P2O5 was shown to be greater than that of maize due to greater exudation of protons and organic acids by chickpea in relation to maize (Li et al.,, 2004a). Thus, in mixed cultures, plants such as cereals, which do not have strong rhizosphere acidification capacity can benefit directly from nutrients solubilised by legume root exudates. What is, however, not clearly known is the extent of rhizosphere pH changes in mixed cultures involving nodulated legumes and cereals and their influence on other biological and chemical processes in the soil. N2 FIXATION IN LEGUMES AND THE ASSOCIATED BENEFITS TO THE CEREAL COMPONENT Biological nitrogen fixation by grain legume crops has received a lot of attention (Eaglesham et al.,, 1981; Giller et al.,, 1991; Izaurralde et al.,, 1992; Giller and Cadisch, 1995; Peoples et al.,, 2002) because it is a considerable N source in agricultural ecosystems (Heichel, 1987; Dakora and Keya, 1997). However, studies on N2 fixation in complex cereal-legume mixtures are few (Stern, 1993; Peoples et al.,, 2002). Intercropping usually includes a legume which fixes N2 that benefits the system, and a cereal component that depends heavily on nitrogen for higher yield (Ofori and Stern, 1986; Cochran and Schlentner, 1995). Controlled studies have shown a significant direct transfer of fixed-N to the associated non-legume species (Eaglesham et al.,, 1981; Giller et al.,, 1991; Frey and Schà ¼epp, 1993; Stern, 1993; Elgersma et al.,, 2000; Hà ¸gh-Jensen and Schjoerring, 2000; Chu et al.,, 2004). There was evidence that the mineralisation of decomposing legume roots in the soil can b oost N availability to the allied crop (Dubach and Russelle, 1994; Schroth et al.,, 1995; Evans et al.,, 2001). In mixed cultures, where row arrangements and the distance of the legume from the cereal are far, nitrogen transfer could decrease. Research has shown that competition between cereals and legumes for nitrogen may in turn kindle N2 fixation activity in the legumes (Fujita et al.,, 1990; Hardarson and Atkins, 2003). The cereal component effectively drains the soil of N, forcing the legume to fix more N2. Therefore it is important to manipulate and establish how the management practice in legume-cereal mixtures may influence N2 fixation and nutrition in cropping systems. The microbial biomass is influenced by biological, chemical, and physical properties of the plant-soil system. Generally, soil and plant management practices may have greater impact on the level of soil microbial C (Gupta and Germida, 1988; Dick et al.,, 1994; Dick, 1997; Alvey et al.,, 2003). For instance, soil microbial C tend to show the highest values in cropland and grassland soils and the lowest in bare cultivated soils (Brookes et al.,, 1984; Gupta and Germida, 1988).Monoculture systems are expected to contain less amounts of microbial biomass and activities in comparison to those in mixed cultures (Moore et al.,, 2000). Studies have indicated that legumes accumulated larger amounts of soil microbial C in the soil than cereals (Walker et al.,, 2003). This is attributed to lower C : N ratio of legume than that of cereal (Uriyo et al.,, 1979; Brady, 1990). Microbial biomass activities could increase after the addition of an energy source. The stimulation of soil microbial biomas s activity by organic amendments is elevated than that induced by organic fertilisers (Bolton et al.,, 1985; Goyal et al.,, 1993; Hà ¶flich et al.,, 2000). Soil organic matter content and soil microbial activities, vital for the nutrient turnover and long term productivity of soil, are enhanced by the balanced application of nutrient and/or organic matter/manure (Bolton et al.,, 1985; Guan, 1989; Goyal et al.,, 1993; Hà ¶flich et al.,, 2000; Kanchikerimath and Singh, 2001). Under conditions of adequate nutrient supply such as P2O5, the microbial biomass C will be increased due to improved plant growth and increased turnover of organic matter in the soil (Bolton et al.,, 1985). Whether the management practices in mixed cultures involving legumes and cereals may favour the stimulation of biological soil activity and, thus, result in a higher turnover of organic substrates in the soil that are utilized by micro-organisms is a good subject to be investigated. Although there is a lot o f information that show the relationship between soil management and soil microbial activity, little is known about these effects under mixed cropping systems as practised by farmers in the tropical/ subtropical environments (Dick, 1984; Dick et al.,, 1988; Deng and Tabatabai, 1996). In this context, the measurement of their activities could provide useful information concerning soil health, and also serve as a good index of biological status in different crop production systems. PHOSPHATASE ACTIVITY IN LEGUME/CEREAL MIXTURES Plants have evolved many morphological and enzymatic adaptations to bear low phosphate availability. This includes transcription activity of acid phosphatases, which tends to increase under P2O5 starvation (Tarafdar and Jungk, 1987; Goldstein, 1992; Duff et al.,, 1994; del Pozo et al.,, 1999; Haran et al.,, 2000; Baldwin et al.,, 2001; Miller et al.,, 2001; Li et al.,, 2002). Phosphatase enzymes in the soil serve several important functions, and are good indicators of soil fertility (Dick and Tabatai, 1992; Eivazi and Tabatabai, 1997; Dick et al.,, 2000). Under conditions of P2O5 deficiency, acid phosphatase secreted from roots is greater than before (Nakas et al.,, 1987; Chrost, 1991;Hayes et al.,, 1999; Li et al.,, 1997). Gilbert et al., (1999) found that white lupin roots from P-deficient plants had significantly superior acid phosphatase activity in both the root extracts and the root exudates than comparable samples from P-sufficient plants. At various starvation levels, these e nzymes release phosphate from both cellular (Bariola et al.,, 1994) and extra cellular (Duff et al.,, Ndakidemi 2529 1994) organic compounds. The transcripts and activity of phosphate transporters are increased to optimise uptake and remobilisation of phosphate in P-deficient plants (Muchhal et al.,, 1996; Daram et al.,, 1999; Kai et al.,, 2002; Karthikeyan et al.,, 2002; Mudge et al.,, 2002; Versaw and Harrison, 2002). It is thought that these morphological and enzymatic responses to P starvation are coordinated by both general stress-related and P-specific signaling systems. The amount of acid phosphatase secreted by plants is genetically controlled, and differs with crop species and varieties (Izaguirre-Mayoral and Carballo, 2002) as well as crop management practices (Patra et al.,, 1990; Staddon et al.,, 1998; Wright and Reddy, 2001). Some studies have shown that the amount of enzymes secreted by legumes were 72 % higher than those from cereals (Yadav and Tarafdar, 2001). Li et al., (2004a) found that, chickpea roots were also able to secrete greater amounts of acid phosphatase than maize. The activity of acid phosphatases is expected to be higher in biologically managed systems because of higher quantity of organic C content found in those systems. In fact, the activity of acid and alkaline phosphatase was found to correlate with organic matter in various studies (Guan, 1989; Jordan and Kremer, 1994; Aon and Colaneri, 2001). It is, therefore, anticipated that management practices in mixed cultures that induce P stress in the rhizosphere, may also affect the secretion of these enzymes. To date, there have been few studies examining the influence of cropping system on the phosphatase activity in the rhizosphere of most legumes and cereals grown in Pakistan. Understanding the dynamics of enzyme activities in these systems is crucial for their assessment their interactions as in turn their activities may regulate nutrient uptake and plant growth in the ecosystem. EFFECT OF ORGANIC, BIOLOGICAL ANDCHEIMCAL FERTLIZERS ON CROPS AND SOIL Application of organic manures has various advantages such as increasing soil physical properties, water holding capacity, and organic carbon content apart from supplying good quality of nutrients. The addition of organic sources could increase the yield through improving soil productivity and higher fertilizer use efficiency (Santhi, and Selvakumari, 2000). High and sustained yield could be obtained with judicious and balanced fertilization combined with organic manures (Kang, B.T. and V. Balasubramanian, 1990). Protecting long-term soil fertility by maintaining soil organic matter levels to certain extent, sustaining soil biological activity and careful mechanical intervention, providing crop nutrient directly by using relatively insoluble nutrient sources which are made available to the plants by the action of soil micro-organisms, nitrogen self sufficiency through the biological nitrogen fixation (Hossain et al.,,2004) as well as effective recycling of organic materials including livestock wastes organic manuring (Safdar, 2002).Soil degradation which is brought about by loss of organic matter accompanying continuous cropping becomes aggravated when inorganic fertilizers are applied repeatedly. This is because crop response to applied fertilizer depends on soil organic matter (Agboola and Omueti, 1982). Among differnret manues poultry manure is highly nutrient enriched organic manure since solid and liquid excreta are excreted simultaneously resulting in no urine loss. In fresh poultry excreta uric acid or urate is the most plentiful nitrogen compound (40-70 % of total N) while urea and ammonium are present in petite amounts (Krogdahl, and Dahlsgard. 1981). Cooperband et al., (2002) assessed phosphorus value of different- age poultry litter composts and raw poultry litter. Available soil P was the highest in plots amended with 15-month old compost, followed by raw poultry litter amended plots. Poultry manure is an excellent organic fertilizer, as it contains high nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other essential nutrients. In contrast to mineral fertilizer, it adds organic matter to soil which improves soil structures, nutrient retention, aeration, soil moisture holding capacity, and water infiltration (Deksissa et al.,, 2008). It was also indicated that poultry manure more readil y supplies P to plants than other organic manure sources (Garg and Bahla, 2008). As the use of poultry manure becomes an integral part of sustainable agriculture, demand for poultry products increases and pasturelands as well as croplands become nutrient saturated, which has ultimately increased water quality and public health concerns. In addition to high N and P content, raw poultry manure has a potential source of pathogen or E .coli (Jamieson et al.,, 2002; Bustamante et al.,, 2007) and endocrine disruptors (Deksissa et al.,, 2007). High and sustained crop yield can be obtained with judicious and balanced NPK fertilization combined with organic matter amendment (Kang and Balasubramanian, 1990).The benefits